ADHD, executive function, dopamine, methylphenidate, neurodevelopment, adult ADHD, comorbidity 1. Introduction Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has transitioned from a controversial diagnosis of disruptive boys to a well-validated neurobiological condition with persistent effects across the lifespan. First formally described by Sir George Still in 1902 as a "defect in moral control," the disorder was officially recognized in DSM-II (1968) as "Hyperkinetic Reaction of Childhood." The current DSM-5-TR (2022) defines ADHD by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are developmentally inappropriate, impair functioning, and present before age 12.
This is a comprehensive academic-style paper on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), structured as a review article suitable for a psychology or neuroscience journal. It covers epidemiology, neurobiology, diagnosis, treatment, and adult outcomes. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Multidimensional Review of Neurobiology, Diagnosis, and Lifespan Management including risks for occupational instability
DSM-5 requires onset before age 12, but longitudinal studies (e.g., the Dunedin cohort) identify a small group (~5-10% of adult ADHD cases) with first symptoms emerging in adulthood without childhood history. Whether this represents late-onset ADHD, a distinct disorder, or misattribution of symptoms to other conditions remains debated. and accidental injury
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders, affecting approximately 5-7% of children and 2.5% of adults worldwide. Once viewed as a childhood-limited condition characterized by hyperactivity and inattention, contemporary research frames ADHD as a lifelong, heterogeneous disorder of executive function, reward processing, and temporal processing. This paper synthesizes current findings on the genetic and neurobiological underpinnings—highlighting dopaminergic and noradrenergic dysregulation in fronto-striatal-cerebellar circuits. It critically evaluates diagnostic challenges, including sex-based phenotypic differences and high comorbidity with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), anxiety, and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Evidence-based interventions are reviewed: stimulant pharmacotherapy (methylphenidate, amphetamines), non-stimulants (atomoxetine, guanfacine), and behavioral therapies. Finally, the paper addresses the emerging adult ADHD phenotype, including risks for occupational instability, substance use, and accidental injury, while advocating for lifespan, multimodal management. while advocating for lifespan
